College and Dear Esteemed Members

Dear Esteemed Members of the Admissions Committee:I am submitting a letter of petition for readmission for the Fall 2011 term. I was dismissed from the university in 2005 for poor academic performance. Upon my entrance into the university I have always been very studious which has led me to excel academically throughout the years. When I began my studies at — I was ignorant of so many things. I didnt really pick up on college regulations and penalties comfortably until my sophomore year. It was then when I learned that I unfortunately didnt drop a class I thought I had dropped. I learned my lesson and became very familiar with the college catalog at that point. During my enrollment at —-, I truly tried my best but it was not good enough. I was devastated to see how I was performing when I knew I was capable of doing better. I graduated 3rd in my class with a 4. 2 on a 4 scale. I had never performed so poorly, EVER! As depressing as this was for me I never gave up. I kept striving for better results but in the end I had to face reality. When I was dismissed from the university I blamed myself for my failures. I was too proud to admit that there were underlying causes that led to such a poor performance on my behalf. When there are problems in my life I usually find ways to deal with them without making them known. Ive re-evaluated the situation and have come to the conclusion that I was in denial of the issues my medical condition was causing me. I am a type 1 diabetic which was not under its best control during my enrollment. I never wanted to admit that it was causing me problems but I realize that it needs to be known and I should not be ashamed of it. My health caused me to be in an uncontrollable state of drowsiness constantly. On some occasions it required hospitalization. There were times I woke up on my floor confused and out of touch with reality. The hospital became my second home. It seemed as if I wasnt at school or the dormitory I was in the hospital. During lectures, tests, and study sessions I fought to stay awake but I did not always win. I studied every chance I was given because I knew it wouldnt be long before my immune system got the best of me. Ill never forget one instance where I wanted to stay awake so desperately to study for finals I took 2 NoDoz pills (400mg of caffeine) and fell asleep almost instantly. Despite all my attempts to persevere, I still didnt want to accept that my diabetes was hindering my studies. Since dismissal I realized that I needed to make a drastic change not just for scholastic purposes but for my overall wellbeing. I teamed up with a dietitian, joined a workout program, and started on an insulin pump. Ive seen and felt a dramatic improvement in my health condition. I no longer encounter any of the issues I did while in college. I have also taken a couple of courses at a community college. For the most part Ive been working to gain experience in my field of study. I would like to be given another chance to prove the magnitude of my academics. My diabetes has maintained great control for a long time now. I am confident that it will remain that way. Im not far from graduation and my hunger for it couldnt be any stronger than it is now. I will send weekly progress reports if I must just to show how sincere I am. I have formulated a personal DARS report as a guidance tool to graduation. I have 45 hours left to complete. My plan is to take 2-3 courses each semester up until graduation. Following that plan will allow me to graduate in the spring of 2013. Included in this letter you will find medical records, transcripts from courses I have taken outside of ——, and other documents supporting this letter. Records-explanation of records (This is not part of the letter but what I will provide with letter)A1C levels; how they can affect ones stateIntensive care unit for kidney infectionHospital visit datesDietician datesCurrent A1C (Average for diabetic blood sugar levels)Letter from exercise programsLetter of recommendation from employers showing work ethicIdk if all the things I will include with the letter are necessary. Should I add or subtract anything? Also most colleges want you to attend another college for a year with a show of progression. I have only completed 16hrs since dismissal. I did four 4hr classes and received 3 A's and a C. Do u think I'll be readmitted on these grounds

Book Review of Missionary Methods

Allen, Roland. Missionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1962. 179 pp. Introduction to the Book The book being discussed is Roland Allen’s Missionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? Allen was an Anglican minister who worked as a missionary in China between the years of 1895 and 1903 and eventually moved his work to Easy Africa. His experience on the foreign mission field developed a keen sense of the Holy Spirit’s place in the ministry of the missionary and his book reflects a desire to awaken others to the same understanding of the Spirit.Summary of the Book The overall purpose of the Roland Allen’s book is to convey the dramatic differences between the methods of modern day missionary organizations and those of the Apostle Paul. Through deep personal study of the various teachings, practices, and strategies of Paul, Allen gained an understanding of what made the ministry of the Apostle so successful. Allen spent thirteen cha pters discussing the most prominent foundations of Paul’s ministry with the intention of bringing the modern missionary back to the simplistic nature of foreign evangelism.The topics of discussion covered by Allen are as follows: strategic localization of churches, the role of social class, the moral and social condition of Paul’s audience, Paul’s use of miracles, the role of finance, the substance of Paul’s message essay writer service, his method of training his converts, the importance of baptism and ordination, Paul’s authority and disciplinary methods, the importance of unity, and the necessity of dependence upon the Holy Spirit. All of these topics were passionately practiced in the missional ministry of the Apostle Paul and can be studied and applied by today’s foreign minister.Throughout the book, Allen addressed the objections toward Paul’s methods of various theologians and clergymen and showed that the ministry of the Apost le could in no way be undermined, nor cast aside as impractical. He very specifically detailed the cultural setting surrounding Paul’s ministry and compared it to modern day cultures that have, or once had, missionary presences in them. By setting up these comparisons, he firmly establishes his argument and plainly shows the relevance of Paul’s methods for ministers in today’s world of foreign missions.Critical Evaluation of the Book If an author has ever presented a near-perfect argument within the confines of a single book, one could argue that Roland Allen is that author. In Missionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? , Allen set out to prove that the widespread missionary methods of the modern church have sorely missed the mark in ministering effectively to the lost world. He proved this reality by pointing to Saint Paul’s past methods and helping the reader see that such methods are still valid and still effective.Allen presented the common object ions that arose against his argument—such as the inability to perform the miracles Paul did, or the differences between the more â€Å"savage† cultures of Allen’s day and the supposedly refined civilizations of Paul’s time—and refuted those claims, showing they hold no true weight. Thus, Allen provided the reader with a thorough argument of his point with little room to question the validity of such an argument. The only true objections that can be made against Allen appeal to the Anglican denominational belief system that he often mentioned throughout the book.His holding to this sect of Christianity did not influence the overall argument that he presented necessarily; it simply injected an addressing of specific problems that Anglican believers have with Paul’s methods. Some examples of these biases can be seen in his mentioning of the necessity for modern Anglican missionaries to act only with the consent of the local Bishop over him or h er. Christians of a denomination separate from such formalities need to provide no answer of such realities in their foreign ministry.Another example of Allen’s Anglican bias can be recognized in his emphasis on the importance of regular practicing of the sacraments of the Anglican Church. He noted that one of the possible problems with practicing a ministry marked by resignation was that â€Å"the Christians would be deprived of the sacraments. † To any believer outside the Church of England, such sacramental deprivation would not be an issue. Other than these two insignificant examples, however, the overall relevancy of Allen’s message remains unaffected and is still worth studying.When considering the strengths and weaknesses of the book, the strengths dramatically outweigh the shortcomings. Allen succeeded in showing the reader that there is no excuse to discount the ministry of Paul as irrelevant in today’s missionary setting. He powerfully implement ed scripture throughout the book with precision. Every verse, story, and biblical example of Paul’s practices and teachings that Allen used were necessary and served to back up his claims with ultimate truth.Also, the open addressing of his opponent’s arguments served to strengthen Allen’s thesis in a way that a simple stating of facts would be incapable of accomplishing. When it comes to Allen’s weaknesses, the only real problem occurred in the way he organized the information within the individual chapters. He used somewhat of an outline structure marked by numbers and Roman numerals, but even with these demarcations the flow of thought was sometimes difficult to follow. The applications for this book in the life of today’s Christian missionary are extremely practical.I know that by following the lessons detailed in the book I could draw up a sound journey plan. Also, the chapters that describe the specific theologies that Paul taught to his chur ches and the â€Å"heathens† can, and should, be directly applied in my personal preaching of the gospel and edification of the converts that come about because of the work being done. Most importantly, however, would be the decision to rely upon the Holy Spirit for the completion and fruition of the seeds that are planted among the people to whom I minister.There is no greater expression of faith than to step back and let the indigenous believers take up the reigns of the mission themselves. Conclusion of the Book Review In conclusion, the book, in my opinion, would be a tremendous help to any minister, student, or layperson with a desire to take the gospel cross-culturally. By practicing the teachings included in the book, missions can begin to find tremendous growth that has otherwise not been realized.

Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism

Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism John Hoberman University of Texas at Austin â€Å"Well, all right then, let’s talk about the Chairman of the World. The world gets into a lot of trouble because it has no chairman. I would like to be Chairman of the World myself. † —E. B. White, Stuart Little (1945) â€Å"But when it comes to our age, we must have an automatic theocracy to rule the world. † —Sun Myung Moon (1973) Back in 1967, Dr.Wildor Hollmann, one of Germany’s most prominent sports physicians and longtime president of the International Federation for Sports Medicine (FIMS), was visiting the International Olympic Academy at Olympia on the day of its annual inauguration, with King Constantine himself in attendance. Naively assuming that the Academy was an open forum for thinking about the past, present, and future of the Olympic movement, Dr. Hollmann expressed the view that, i n the not-too-distant future. he â€Å"Olympic idea† itself would inevitably fall victim to the logic of development inherent in the professionalization and commercialization of elite sport. The words were hardly out of his mouth before Dr. Hollmann was engulfed in a storm of indignation, during which an Italian member of the IOC declared that merely expressing such thoughts was in his view nothing less than a desecration of this holy site. 1 Olympic historiography has long been inseparable from the Movement’s status as a redemptive and inspirational internationalism.Like so many readings of its founder, Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), historical interpretations of the Olympic movement have generally taken the form of â€Å"either hagiographies or hagiolatries,† and not least because the founder himself â€Å"proclaimed Olympism beyond ideology. †2 Historical treatments of the Movement since the launching of that provocative claim have thus had no 1. W[i ldor] Hollmann, â€Å"Risikofaktoren in der Entwicklung des Hochleistungssports. â€Å" in H. Rieckert, ed. Sportmedizin—Kursbestimmung [Deutscher Sportarztekongre?Kiel. l6. -19. Oktober 1986] (Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 1987): 18. 2. John J. MacAloon, This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981): 2, 6. 1 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) choice but to embrace or call into question the transcendent status of Olympic sport that is symbolized so powerfully by opening and closing ceremonies that tap into deep and unfulfilled wishes for a Golden Age of harmony and peace.Due at least in part to the impassioned and seemingly endless debate between the defenders and detractors of â€Å"Olympism,† with its pronounced emphasis on ethical values at the expense of historical factors, serious study of the Olympic movement has stagnated. Recent monographs have presented familiar e vents and issues without much in the way of new research or methodological innovation. 3 While the periodical literature of the past decade or so, including voluminous conference proceedings, has offered a wider range of perspectives, the conceptual landscape inhabited by the historian has not really changed in significant ways.This closed circulatory system of topics and problems has rigidified the important debate over values by limiting our understanding of the object of contention—the Olympic movement itself. The arguments between supporters and critics of the Movement that tend to dominate discussion naturally proceed from the assumption that both actually know what the Movement is or, at least, what it is worth to the international community. Yet the sheer complexity of the Olympic phenomenon suggests there is much more to know even without entering the domain of ethnographical research.I would propose that the production of this knowledge depends on reconceptualizing t he Olympic movement in fundamental ways. This essay proposes a theory of Olympic internationalism based on a comparative method. Indeed, the fact that no comparative study of this kind has ever been published suggests that the iconic status of the Movement has had a profoundly limiting effect on Olympic historiography as a whole and thus on the debate regarding values. as well. For by exaggerating the uniqueness of the Movement, Olympic historians have conferred on it a degree of splendid (or, alternatively, discreditable) isolation that is contradicted by the historical evidence. An important consequence of this overly narrow 3. See. for example. Allen Guttmann. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (Urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1992); and â€Å"The Olympic Games,† in Games & Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism (New York: Columbia University Press. 1994): 120-138. The former offers a good survey of Olympic history.The latter discusses t he Olympic movement in the larger context of sport and cultural diffusion. See also Christopher Hill, Olympic Politics (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), which pays special attention to Olympic finance and the bidding process. For a highly personal and admiring treatment of the modern Olympic movement, see John Lucas, Future of the Olympic Games (Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Books, 1992). 4. To this observation I must append an additional (and ironic) one. Even as I argue that the failure of Olympic historiography to embark upon comparative studies has isolated the movement.I must point out simultaneously that historical treatments of other international movements have isolated them in exactly the same way. In a word, nothing resembling a comprehensive theory of these international movements exists, perhaps in part because there are so many of them and they are so heterogeneous. For example, Samuel P. Huntington’s treatment of â€Å"Transnational Organizations in World Politics† (1973) includes none of the organizations discussed in the present essay and lists an â€Å"idealistic† organization like the Catholic church along with profit-oriented corporations and a pair of important Cold War institutions.His list reads as follows: Anaconda, Intelsat, Chase Manhattan, the Agency for International Development, the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, Air France, the Strategic Air Command, Unilever, the Ford Foundation, the Catholic Church, the CIA, and the World Bank. The purpose of his essay is to analyze what he calls â€Å"a transnational organizational revolution in world politics. † See â€Å"Transnational Organizations in World Politics,† World Politics 25 (1973): 333-368. Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism interpretation has been to exacerbate and confuse the debate about values by crowning (or afflicting) the Movement with an exaggerated picture of its uniqueness as a vessel of recon ciliation (or harm). The evidence presented below suggests that a comparison of the Olympic movement with contemporary and analogous international movements reveals a core repertory of behaviors and orientations that are common to them all.The comparative procedure presented here divides the history of these â€Å"idealistic internationalisms† into three periods that are roughly separated by the First and Second World Wars, respectively. The establishment of the Olympic movement in 1894 coincided with the sharply accelerated formation of a broad range of international organizations during the last decades of the nineteenth century. Between 1855 and 1914, their overall numbers increased from a mere handful to around 200, and the numbers have grown exponentially since the turn-of-the-century period. The comparative study of international organizations and the â€Å"movements† they launch remains underdeveloped to a striking degree, and this is so even in the case of impo rtant types of international activity. Thus, while Olympic historiography is rather well established, one historian has referred to the world of international science as a â€Å"largely unexplored domain. † On a broader scale, as another historian recently noted, â€Å"the construction of internationalism has merited scarcely a glance. †6 Accounting for such lacunae in the writing of history is in itself an interesting, and often difficult. istoriographical problem. It may be less difficult, however, in the case of movements that have created both core groups of loyal adherents and benevolent self-images that in some cases have exercised a virtually global reach for most of a century. The Olympic (1894), Scouting (1908), and Esperanto (1887) movements, for example, have all benefitted from benign myths of origin rooted in reverential attitudes toward the personal qualities of their respective founding fathers and the salvational doctrines they created.One result of suc h cults of personality is a â€Å"halo effect† that can confer on such movements a degree of immunity to critical examination. As one of the few serious historians of Scouting has pointed out: â€Å"Scouting has for so long been a familiar and well-loved part of the Western world that it appears always to have been with us, less a man-made creation than a natural, indigenous activity of our civilization. † The consequences of according such iconic status to culturally constructed institutions have been profound. In the case of Scouting, â€Å"it is startling that so few have seriously considered what it all meant.Such immunity from critical scrutiny has left Scouting almost entirely in the 5. Elizabeth Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science, 1880-1939,† in Tore Frangsmyr, ed. Solomon's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton, MA; Science History Publications, U. S. A. , 1990): 259-260. For evidence for the pr oliferation of international organizations during the twentieth century, see the Yearbook of International Organizations (Brussels: Union of International Associations, 1974). 6. Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 265; Leila J.Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism; The Case of Transnational Women's organizations, 1888-1945,† American Historical Review (December 1994): 1571. 3 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) hands of its own historians and publicists, a situation that is not helpful in trying to understand the origins and meaning of any movement. †7 These words are precisely descriptive of the Olympic movement, as well, the only difference being that Olympic historiography has developed (over the past 25 years) a degree of autonomy the history of Scouting has not.This autonomous branch of Olympic historiography is necessarily based on scholarly or investigative activity that produces interpretations of the Olympic mo vement that do not always coincide with those of the IOC and its adherents in the press and in academia. And it is here that analyzing the Movement will often be interpreted as â€Å"criticism. † Today, a generation after Wildor Hollmann’s heretical (and prophetic) remark about the future of Olympic sport, criticism of the International Olympic Committee is still capable of offending the dignity of its most powerful members.The landmark event in this regard was the publication in 1992 of The Lords of the Rings, an expose of the IOC’s inner circle by the investigative journalists Vyvian Simson and Andrew Jennings. Translated into 13 languages, the book became a global media event that traumatized the IOC leadership and, in particular, its President, Juan Antonio Samaranch, who stood accused of political opportunism and fascist allegiances both during the Franc period and after the Generalissimo’s death in 1975. The publication of Jaume Boix and Arcadio Esp ada’s book El deporte del poder.Vida y milagro de Juan Antonio Samaranch, containing essentially the same material on Samaranch’s political background, had gone virtually unnoticed by the world press only a year earlier. 8 The reaction from IOC headquarters to the atmosphere of scandal created by The Lords of the Rings deserves a study in itself. On 17 February 1994 the IOC and President Samaranch filed a criminal action in a Lausanne court against the authors but not against their more powerful major publishers (Simon & Schuster, Bertelsman, Flammarion). The indictment (Investigation No. : CH. 32. 92) charged libel under article 174 and defamation under article 173 of the Swiss Penal Code. The tone of the document can be conveyed by quoting from its text: â€Å"The plaintiff, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is an international nongovernmental organization, constituted as a nonlucrative association. It has the status of a person . . . . The work of the accus ed constitutes a lampoon directed against the plaintiffs, against the management of the IOC and its officials and against the behaviour of the former and of some of their co-contracting parties.To a large extent, the formulated criticisms constitute a blow to the honour of the IOC, its president and its 7. Michael Rosenthal. The Character Factory: Baden-Powell’s Boy Scouts and the Imperatives of Empire (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986): 1, 12. 8. Vyv Simson and Andrew Jennings, The Lords of the Rings: Power, Money and Drugs in the Modern Olympics (London: Simon & Schuster, 1992); Jaime Boix and Arcadio Espada, El deporte de poder. Vida y milagro de Juan Antonio Samaranch [The Sport of Power. The Life and Miracle of Juan Antonio Samaranch] (= Hombres de hoy, Vol 30) (Madrid: Ediciones temas de hoy, 1991).For a very useful summary of this (still untranslated) volume see the review by Arnd Kruger in The International Journal of Sports History 10 (August 1993): 291-293. The author of this essay wishes to point out that he has not read El deporte del poder. 4 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism members . . . The IOC is described as a secret and clandestine organization. similar to the mafia . . . The IOC, its president and its members are depicted as depraved and disgusting persons. † In December 1994. fter hearing testimony from President Samaranch himself, the court sentenced the authors in absentia to a five-day suspended jail sentence and the payment of $2,000 in court costs (which remains unpaid). The explicit reference in the indictment to violated â€Å"honour,† and the failure of article 173 to provide for any assessment of the truth or falsity of the alleged â€Å"defamation,† are a poignant reminder of the nineteenth-century origins of the IOC and the role that aristocratic ideas about honor have played in shaping the value system and political behavior of the Olympic movement (see below). The furor created by this undocu mented work of investigative journalism raised interesting questions for Olympic research. and the most important of these topics may well be the relationship between sports journalism and sports scholarship. 10 As Arnd Kruger points out in his review of El deporte del poder: â€Å"Good investigative reporting often beats much of what historians can offer in terms of graphic information and anecdotal material not so readily available in archival research. To this I would add that, in addition to useful anecdotal embellishments, these journalistic treatments of the political career of IOC president Samaranch offer the historian an opportunity to expand the framework for doing Olympic history in the direction of the comparative method described above. Indeed, Kruger himself points to the larger importance of such journalism: â€Å"This book ends many myths about the IOC and its current president† by excavating his political past and raising questions about how a person’ s political formation may affect his conduct as 9.The carelessness (or dishonesty) with which the IOC drew up the indictment is evident in one instance in particular. Its list of alleged inaccuracies committed by the authors falsely accuses them of making an unflattering remark about the IOC that is clearly attributed in The Lords of the Rings (p. 211) to William Simon, former president of the United States Olympic Committee, former Secretary of the Treasury, and on account of his prominence, an unlikely target of IOC retaliation.The author of this essay wishes to point out that in November 1994 he sent a letter to the judge trying this care in Lausanne defending the authors’ right to publish The Lords of the Rings. 10. John J. MacAloon has written disapprovingly of what he regards as the degeneration of sports scholarship into a genre resembling sports journalism. He refers, for example, to â€Å"the uncomfortable interpretive alikeness—at least in the U. K. , where socialist analysis is one sort of cultural common sense—of much sports journalism and popular commentary on the one side, and sports sociology, stripped of its academic apparatus and pretenses, on the other. See â€Å"The Ethnographic Imperative in Comperative Olympic Research. † Sociology of Sport Journal, 9 (1992): 110. Or, â€Å"Treated like Journalists, sport scholars are tempted to act like them. † See â€Å"The Turn of Two Centuries: Sport and the Politics of Intercultural Relations,† in Fernand Landry, Marc Landry, and Magdeleine Yerles, eds. Sport . . . The third millenium [Proceedings of the lnternational Symposium, Quebec City, Canada, May 21-25, 1990] (Sante-Foy: Les Presses de l’Universite Laval. 1991): 36.MacAloon‘s second point, regarding the likely consequences of the IOC’s unwillingness to share more information with Olympic researchers. is particularly insightful. He offers this remark in the context of arguing that sp orts leaders should not â€Å"deny themselves the professional expertise of scholars. † By contrast. the author of this essay regards the secretiveness of the IOC as essential to its operations as an â€Å"offshore† international body sheltering important individuals whose various operations would not stand up to press scrutiny.I would also point out that in neither of his essays does MacAloon criticize the many journalists who function as de facto publicists for the IOC. At a Colloquy on Olympic issues held in Lausanne in April 1994. IOC Director General Francois Carrard expressed the view that there are â€Å"some ten to fifteen† journalists in the world who actually understand Olympic issues. See â€Å"Proceedings of the Colloquy on the Themes of the Olympic Centennial Congress Held in the Olympic Museum, Ouchy, Lausanne on 8th, 9th and 10th April 1994† (unpublished document). Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) the leader of a power ful international organization that is to be counted among those â€Å"transnational forms, none of them transcendent, innocent, or neutral in political history,†11 which include the IOC. My point here is that the more we know about the formative history of an Olympic politician, the better the chances of finding comparable figures and patterns of behavior in other international organizations.In this sense, a book like The Lords of the Rings, while unsuitable as scholarly source material, has already served Olympic historiography by drawing attention to a triad of interrelated and neglected topics: first, the sheer autonomy and freedom from surveillance enjoyed by many high-ranking international functionaries inside and outside the IOC; second, how the upper echelons of international organizations provide political and financial opportunity and sanctuary to significant numbers of people who have compromised themselves in various ways back in their national communities; and th ird, the long history of extreme right-wing personalities and attitudes within the IOC. As Simson and Jennings put it: â€Å"The Samaranch who went to the IOC in 1966 would have found himself at ease among the many other members from authoritarian or undemocratic backgrounds. †12 One purpose of this essay is to account for this continuity between the IOC of the fascist period in Europe and the comparable elites to be found at the top of international sports federations today. This ideological continuity is not simply a result of the procedures by which the IOC or any of the other federations choose their members.On the contrary, the selfperpetuating process which renews the membership of the IOC has been made even more efficient by the way it and comparable organizations have served as â€Å"offshore† enterprise zones for right-wing personalities and various amoral opportunists since the political collapse of fascism in 1945. 1. The Early Internationalist Period Any st udy of the â€Å"idealistic† international movements of the fin de siecle period must acknowledge their diverse characteristics as well as demonstrate the values and behaviors that make them cohere as a distinct category of thematically interrelated organizations that sometimes attracted overlapping clienteles.Their homogeneity and heterogeneity as a class of social phenomena become yet clearer if we expand the scope of our survey beyond the four primary movements to be examined here, namely, the Red Cross (1863), the Esperanto movement (1887), the Olympic movement (1894). and the Scouting movement (1908). It is of fundamental importance, for example, that all of these movements were ideologically distinct from Marxist internationalism. Indeed, this is one way to account for the fact that all of them eventually accommodated the Nazis in various ways. The First International (or International Working Men’s Association) was founded by Marx in 1864, outlawed in France and Germany, and effectively dissolved in 1872. Despite its 11. MacAloon, â€Å"The Ethnographic Imperative in Comperative Olympic Research,† 126. 12. Simson and Jennings, The Lords of the Rings, 111. 6Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism political insignificance, as James Joll notes, â€Å"it had awakened all Europe to the possibilities of international working class action . . . . And so, on the eve of its extinction, the International was endowed with a legendary power it had lacked in its lifetime, and acquired a largely spurious tradition of heroic international revolutionary action. † The Second International (1889-l914), which collapsed when the European proletariat deserted international solidarity for national chauvinism and military service at the outbreak of the Great War, actually employed some of the ideas and rhetorical devices characteristic of the â€Å"bourgeois† internationalisms of the epoch.That these superficial resemblances were outweig hed by the ideological barrier is evident in the fact that its ideological descendants would eventually stage an impressive series of Workers Olympiads (1921-1937) that the Socialist Workers Sports International claimed were more genuinely international than the â€Å"bourgeois† Olympic Games. The internationalism of the late nineteenth century could also take the form of an artistic cosmopolitanism. Like the Olympic movement, Wagnerism was an international movement originating in an established cultural medium (music) that developed both a distinctive ideology, composed of a cultural critique and a program for cultural renewal, and an international clientele. The golden age of Wagnerian internationalism commenced in 1872, when the master moved to Bayreuth, and ended with his death in 1883. Olympism and Wagnerism both served up ersatz religious experiences to people disillusioned with European â€Å"progress† and positivist thinking. There was a pervasive need for an e motional piety that was less vulnerable than orthodox religious observance to the dessicating effects of change, scientific progress. and higher biblical criticism. †13 During the last decades of the nineteenth century there appeared a variety of internationalisms that could satisfy such needs. and the Wagner cult that spread west to America and east to Russia was one of them. To be sure, Wagnerism was German in a way the Olympic movement could not be, although the 1936 Berlin Olympiad, judged as an aesthetic production, was a great triumph of the Olympic â€Å"Germanizers† that put its permanent mark on Olympic ritual. 4 Yet even the Germanness of Wagnerism took the form of a universalistic doctrine that anticipated the Olympic movement and its redemptive mission across national boundaries. For in identifying the Germans as the most â€Å"universal† of peoples, Wagner was proclaiming Germany’s mission to the world. This sort of ethnocentric cosmopolitanis m, as we shall see in the next section of this essay, eventually served as a transitional Weltanschauung to expedite the process by which Germany overcame the xenophobic inhibitions deriving from its own cultural insecurities and appropriated Olympic internationalism on German terms. 13. David C. Large and William Weber, â€Å"Introduction†; David C. Large, â€Å"Wagner's Bayreuth Disciples,† in David C.Large and William Weber, eds. Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1984): 18. 14. Thomas Alkemeyer, â€Å"Gewalt und Opfer im Ritual der Olympischen Spiele 1936,† in Gunter Gebauer, ed. Korper und Einbildungskraft: Inszenierungen des Helden im Sport (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1988): 44-79. 7 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Wagner’s foreign admirers were thus able to enjoy his musical productions as supranational experiences. In addition, as Gerald D. Turbow has pointed out, th e Wagner devotee was participating in the general internationalist ferment of the epoch whether he knew it or not.Thus one French enthusiast, â€Å"writing shortly after the Geneva Treaty on War [1864], the establishment of the Red Cross [1863], and the organization of the First International [1864], found the principle of world unity and peace in Wagner’s operas. In characteristic utopian terms he maintained that just as Wagner had eliminated the barriers that existed between set numbers in the formal operas and just as the old boundaries between cities were vanishing, so now would they disappear between countries as well. †15 It is even more interesting to learn that Coubertin experienced his own Wagnerian epiphany. In his Olympic Memoirs (193l), Coubertin reports that a visit to Bayreuth, and the â€Å"passionate strains† of Wagner’s music, assisted him in seeing the â€Å"Olympic horizons† before his mind’s eye. 6 The existence of a Wagn erian internationalism demonstrates that certain internationalist projects of this period were not negations of nationalism but rather cultural projections of nationalist impulses employing cosmopolitan vocabularies rooted in ethnocentric ideas of national grandeur. 17 A variety of internationalist initiatives, including the Olympic movement, both included and disguised nationalist and even cultic themes which could be presented as cosmopolitan projects within the European context. Rooted in racialistic European mythologies, such idealistic cosmopolitanisms did not anticipate, to take only one example, the multiracial agenda of the modern Olympic movement.Olympism, Wagnerism, and the Salzburg [music] Festival (1920-) are three such cosmopolitanisms rooted in cultic reappropriations of the European past. Their respective ideological sources are the myth of ancient Hellas, Germanic mythology, and a myth of Austria’s baroque cultural heritage, and there is evidence which suggest s they once constituted a single festival metagenre in the minds of some observers. Thus, in 1918, an Austrian cultural critic wrote that the Salzburg Festival was the first â€Å"total aesthetic realization (Durchbildung) of the festival character† since the revival of the 15. Gerald D. Turbow, â€Å"Art and Politics: Wagnerism in France,† in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics, 153. 16.Pierre de Coubertin, Memoires olympiques (Lausanne: Bureau international de pedagogie sportive, 1931): 64. It is also interesting to note that Jules Ferry, an early prime minister of the French Third Republic, was both a supporter of Coubertin and an admirer of Wagner. See Turbow, â€Å"AR and Politics: Wagnerism in France,† 143, 146. 17. Cosmopolitanism and internationalism have been (properly) defined as different ideals. Marcel Mauss, writing in 1919-1920, regarded these terms as opposed ideas. â€Å"Internationalism worthy of the name is the opposite of cosmopolitani sm. It does not deny the nation, it situates it. Internation is the opposite of a-nation.Thus it is also the opposite of nationalism, which isolates the nation. † Mauss defines cosmopolitanism as a doctrine which tends toward â€Å"the destruction of nations, to the creation of a moral order (morale) in which they would no longer be the sovereign authorities, creators of the law, nor the supreme ends worthy of future sacrifices to a superior cause, named humanity itself. † Mauss derides this ideal as â€Å"an etheral theory of the monadic human being who is everywhere identical. † See Marcel Mauss, â€Å"Nation, national, internationalisme,† in Oeuvres, 3 (Paris: Editions de minuit, 1969). 8 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Olympic Games. 8 What is more, historians of both Wagnerism and the Salzburg Festival have shown how these cultural productions—in effect, nationalistic cults—were successfully marketed to international audience s. â€Å"The tact and success of the pan-European Salzburg propaganda came from the fact that this nationalist program could be expressed as a cosmopolitan ideal that in turn would seem like pure internationalism to the English and the French. †19 The Olympic movement, too, has derived much of its international prestige from precisely this sort of transformation, whereby an essentially national ambition has been perceived as Enlightenment cosmopolitanism. In all three case—Olympism, Wagnerism, and Salzburg—the â€Å"European idea† proved to be a politically viable packaging for nationalistic content.As we will see in the next section, both German â€Å"universalism† and the â€Å"European idea† served to reconcile the ideological needs of European rightwingers to the requirements of Olympic internationalism. 20 Certain international movements of this period can be seen as gendered. embodying a kind of male or a female solidarity and an ideol ogy to express this gendered orientation. The Olympic and Scouting movements began as internationalisms that promulgated related conceptions of the ideal male. an orientation that had political consequences during the fascist period (see below). Even though both eventually absorbed female participants, gender integration occurred in a male-dominated context that ascribed limited capacities to female participants.A countervailing example of gender-segregated internationalism was the organizing of women on a transnational basis, which began in 1888 with the founding of the International Council of Women in Washington. D. C. â€Å"Both by assuming fundamental gender differences and by advocating separatist organizing, women in transnational organizations drew boundaries that separated men from women. †21 This autonomous policy of segregation makes female internationalism especially interesting to the comparativist as a â€Å"control group† internationalism vis-a-vis other groups precisely because its leaders claimed to be building upon a distinct and more pacific type of human nature than that possessed by their male counterparts.In retrospect, however, the comparison between â€Å"male† and â€Å"female† international organizations is interesting precisely because it reveals more similarities than differences, confirming my operating thesis that there is a core repertory of behaviors and attitudes that characterize the important groups that appear during this extraordinary period of internationalist ferment. This repertory includes a rhetoric of universal membership, a 18. Michael P. Steinberg, The Meaning of the Salzburg Festival: Austria as Theater and Ideology, 18901938 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1990): 60. 19. Large, â€Å"Wagner’s Bayreuth Disciples,95: Steinberg, The Meaning of the Salzburg Festival, 69. The festival program revealed on every level a convergence of explicitly cosmopolitan and pan-Europ ean ideals with a Bavarian-Austrian—that is, a baroque-nationalism. † See Steinberg, 23. 20. I have adapted this paragraph from John M. Hoberman, â€Å"Olympic Universalism and the Apartheid Issue. † in Fernand Landry, Marc Landry, and Magdeleine Yerles eds. Sport. . . The third millenium [Proceedings of the International Symposium, Quebec City, Canada, May 21-25, 1990] (Sainte-Foy: Les Presses de l’Universite Laval, 1991): 531. 21. Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism,† 1582. 9 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Eurocentric orientation that limits universal participation, an insistence on political neutrality, the empowering role of wealth, social prominence and aristocratic affiliations. professed interest in peacemaking or pacifism, a complex and problematic relationship between national and international loyalties, the emergence of a (marginalized) â€Å"citizen-of-the-world†-style radical supranationalism, and th e use of visual symbols such as flags and anthems. One might also say that all of these movements offered to their members a philosophy of creative international action amounting to a way of life for those possessing the necessary dedication and financial independence to pursue it. The Feminist International appears to have differed from its male counterparts in not producing a conspicuous hagiographical tradition honoring its â€Å"founding mothers. More importantly, an exclusively female membership and its doctrine of biogendered pacifism (â€Å"All wars are men’s wars†) precluded their adopting (as the Olympic and Scouting movements did) the ideology of chivalry as the basis for establishing an idealized transnational identity. As we will see in the next section, the establishment of a transnational male identity based upon â€Å"chivalric† ideals played an important role in shaping relations between the â€Å"male† internationalisms and Nazi Germany. In addition to sharing a set of core behaviors and attitudes, the idealistic internationalisms were bound together by personal ties between groups and by individuals with ties to more than one group.For example, Dietrich Quanz has demonstrated Coubertin’s close ties to the European peace movement of the fin de siecle and the prewar Nobel Peace Prize Laureates (1901-1913): â€Å"Coubertin must have noticed this model for international private oganizations. He had had contact with almost half of the Nobel Peace Prize winners, some of whom were his friends. He listed five of them as honorary members of the Founding Congress of the IOC in 1894. † 22 Among Coubertin’s Nobel Peace Prize contacts was the Austrian pacifist Alfred Hermann Fried, who published an Esperanto textbook for German-speakers in 1903. 23 Coubertin was also co-founder in 1910 (with the Nobel Prizewinning [1908] physicist Gabriel Lippmann) of the Ligue d’Education National. he forerunner of the French Boy Scouts,24 while Lord BadenPowell, the founder of the Scouting movement, promoted the British ideology of sportsmanship absorbed by Coubertin. 25 The pacifistically inclined German educator Friedrich Wilhelm Forster (1869-1966) called Baden22. Dietrich R. Quanz. â€Å"Formatting Power of the IOC: Founding the Birth of a New Peace Movement. † Citius. Altius. Fortius, 3 (Winter 1995): 12. See also Dietrich R. Quanz, â€Å"Die Grundung des IOC im Horizont von burgerlichem Pazifismus und Internationalismus,† in Gunter Gebauer, ed. Die Aktualitat der Sportphilosophie (St. Augustin: Academia Verlag, 1993), 191-216: â€Å"Civic Pacifism and Sports-Based Internationalism: Framework for the Founding of the International Olympic Committee,† Olympika.The International Journal of Olympic Studies, 2 (1993): 1-23. 23. Ulrich Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache: Die Verfolgung der Esperantisten unter Hitler und Stalin (Gerlingen: Bleicher Verlag, 1988): 41. 24. Arnd K ruger, â€Å"Neo-Olypismus zwischen Nationalismus und internationalismus,† in Horst Ueberhorst, ed. Gescichte der Leibesubung, 3/1 (Berlin: Bartels und Wernitz, 1980): 524. 25. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 10, 31. 10 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Powell’s Scouting for Boys (1908) â€Å"the best pedagogical book to have appeared in decades. †26 Like Coubertin, the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel Prize 1909) had multiple ties to internationalist projects.At first a supporter of Esperanto, Ostwald changed his allegiance to Esperanto’s chief competitor, the artificial language Ido, in 1908. He also worked toward founding an international chemical institute. 27 In a more eccentric vein. Ostwald served as President of the International Committee of Monism, a philosophy based on the universal authority of science that aimed at propagating â€Å"a rational ethics. † In Monism as the Goal of Civilization (1913), Ostwald held out the possibility of â€Å"a completely neutral and likewise easily acquired auxiliary language† as â€Å"an indescribable blessing† for mankind. pointing to â€Å"the rapidly increasing international arrangements and relations† and the â€Å"irresistible flow toward the international organization of human affairs. 28 All three of the early international women’s organizations weighed the possibility of adopting Esperanto as a means of facilitating communication. 29 The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) sent a delegation to the Esperanto Congress held in Dresden in 1907. 30 The first chairman of the London Esperanto Club, Felix Moscheles, was President of the International Arbitration and Peace Association and a major figure in the pacifist movement. 31 These and other interrelationships confirm the thesis that such groups belong to a genre of international organizations, both unified and variegated, that deserves to be studied in a comparative m anner. As the great early promoter of international sport, â€Å"the Esperanto of the aces† (Jean Giraudoux), Coubertin occupies a central position within this configuration of internationally minded idealists. All of the idealistic internationalisms of this period appealed to deep feelings among Europeans that were rooted in anxieties about war and peace. As inhabitants of a political universe that has effectively banished the memory of socialist internationalism prior to the Third (Communist) International, we would do well to recall its stature as the preeminent antiwar movement of its period (1889-1914). â€Å"For at least fifty years,† as James Joll has noted, â€Å"international Socialism was one of the great intellectual forces in Europe . . . while no statesman or political thinker could avoid taking it into account. The urgency of the feelings shared by Socialist and non-Socialist internationalists alike was evident at the emergency congress of the Socialist International, held in Basle in November 1913, as fear of war spread throughout 26. Karl Seidelmann, Die Pfadfinder in der deutschen Jugendgeschichte (Hannover: Hermann Schroedel Velag, 1977): 28-29. 27. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 42; Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 264, it is worth noting that Crawford calls Ostwald â€Å"the most ubiquitous of scientists† (264). 28. Wilhelm Ostwald, Monism as the Goal of Civilization (Hamburg: The International Committee of Monism, 1913): 10, 6, 25. 29. Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism,† 1578. 30. Peter G. Forster, The Esperanto Movement (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982): 170. 31. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 28. 11Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Europe. Sobered into a state of somber meditation that permitted the relaxation of ideological discipline, the delegates heard the great French leader Jean Jaures sound a religious note, while the next day the veteran Sw iss Socialist Greulich, â€Å"when finally closing the proceedings, not only referred to Bach’s B Minor Mass but even, though with an apologetic ‘Don’t be alarmed’, quoted from the Roman Catholic liturgy to express the socialist hope: ‘Exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturam saeculis’. †32 The ideological divisions that separated Socialists from non-Socialists (and, ater, Socialists from Communists) have had a profound impact on the entire phenomenon of European internationalism during this century. The sports and Esperanto movements eventually split along ideological lines into socialist and â€Å"bourgeois† factions, while Baden-Powell’s bourgeois-nationalist Boy Scout organization was subjected to harsh criticism just after the Great War by his onetime successor-apparent, John Hargrave, a militant proponent of â€Å"World Friendship† who could not stomach the imperialist component of Baden-Powell†™s doctrine. That Baden-Powell rejected the charge as â€Å"Bolshevism† only confirms the importance of the division between the anti-imperialist, non-establishmentarian internationalisms and their bourgeois-nationalist counterparts. 3 In the case of the Esperantists, however, this ideological divide was mostly illusory, due to the fact that the artificial language movement appealed to the marginal and the underprivileged from its very beginnings in eastern Poland and Russia in the late 1880s and 1890s. This affinity between the fraternal idealism of the Esperantists and the ethical program of the revolutionary Left was recognized by the early psychoanalytical writer J. C. Flugel, who was himself an Esperantist. â€Å"The Esperanto movement,† he wrote in 1925, â€Å"with its quasi-religious enthusiasm and its attempt to break down the barriers between nations and races, inevitably challenges comparison with certain other movements of a universalizing tendency. It ha s, of course, certain features in common with Socialism and Communism.These also are international and pacifist in character, and aim at fostering a spirit of comradeship among fellow-members; but they differ from the Esperanto movement in two important respects: (a) In the essential economic basis of their programme; (b) In that the revolutionary and insurgent tendencies— based ultimately on displacements of father-hatred—are very much more prominent. In the Esperanto movement these latter tendencies are implicit rather than explicit . . . .†34 This crucial distinction between explicit and implicit â€Å"insurgent tendencies† was the most important difference between the revolutionary and his typological opposite, the linguistic humanitarian whose progressive idealism was channeled into more symbolic forms of re32. James Joll, The Second lnternational 1889-1914 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974): 1, 158, 159. 33. Rosenthal, The Character Fa ctory, 245-247. 34. J. C.Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconscious Factors in the International Language Movement With Special Reference to Esperanto,† International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 6 (1925): 12 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism sistance to political repression and national chauvinism. Despite its nonrevolutionary status, Flugel saw his analysis of the artificial language movement as a contribution to â€Å"the psychology of progressive social movements† in a wider sense. A study of the â€Å"unconscious mental mechanisms with which psycho-analysis has made us familiar† could thus illuminate â€Å"the wider psychological problems presented by language and by constructive social movements in general. Such comments make it clear that Flugel was canny enough to understand that â€Å"rational† policies might well derive in part from nonrational impulses. Thus he did not hesitate to identify the altruism and dynamism of his fellow Esperantrists wit h sexual wishes and potentially grandiose ideas about undoing the havoc wrought in the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel. 35 Still, it is apparent that Flugel saw internationalism as a single genre of activity that was inherently â€Å"progressive† despite its psychoanalytic complications, and it is likely that he associated its â€Å"constructive† potential with the Enlightenment tradition of rational problemsolving and cosmopolitan understanding.The problem with this portrait of the Esperantists is that it is expurgated (or simply uninformed) and thus historically inaccurate in important respects. By 1925. there was plenty of evidence to suggest that the Esperanto movement was not uniformly â€Å"progressive † in a political sense; it would appear, however, that Flugel overlooked these facts on account of his deep respect both for the founding father of the movement and for many of his fellow enthusiasts. The founder of Esperanto, Ludwig Lazar Zamenhof (185 91917), was a Jew born in Bialystok, Poland, who was convinced that only an artificial and universally comprehensible language could heal the ethnic strife that plagued this area. (At the age of 10, Zamenhof wrote a five-act tragedy, set in Bialystok, based on the Tower of Babel story. In the years that followed his publication of the first Esperanto textbook in 1887, adherents of the movement deemphasized Zamenhof's Jewish origins in order to minimize anti-Semitic resistance to their proselytizing efforts. More surprising in retrospect is the fact that the Dreyfus Affair (1895) the great political litmus test of fin-de-siecle French political life, polarized the French Esperantists, demonstrating that linguistic internationalism alone did not guarantee a â€Å"progressive† political orientation. The â€Å"Declaration on the Essence of Esperanto† that was adopted at the first Congress of Esperantists held at Boulogne-surmer in 1905 was a clear declaration of political neutrality that did not even mention world peace.Indeed, the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA) was not established until 1908, by which time the influence of Zamenhof's quasi-religious doctrine of universal brotherhood was already in decline. 36 To some extent this breach between the founders’ ideals and a more practical orientation emphasizing commerce and science reflected a difference in out35. Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconscious Factors,† 171-172, 208, 187, 190. 36. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 29, 31, 26. 13 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) look between Western Europe (especially France) and Eastern Europe and Russia. where political repression and a high proportion of Jewish Esperantists had preserved the early idealism.The larger lesson, however, is that even early on linguistic internationalism showed signs of the defensive political neutralism and resulting fissiparous tendencies that compromised its independence and opened windows of op portunity for political activists on the Left and the Right during the 1920s and 1930s. That even as well-informed an observer as Flugel did not understand the ideological instability of the Esperantists points to some of our own acquired habits of thought regarding the effectiveness of internationalist ideals and the transnational groups that attempt to implement them. The traditional (though now eroding) assumption that idealistic internationalisms can transform the modern world has been profoundly shaped by our image of the Enlightenment cosmopolitanism that dates from the late eighteenth century. The League of Nations, the United Nations, the vast empires of modern science and sport, nd countless international arrangements of equal or lesser scope all trace their ancestry (or an important part of it) to a period that has taken on the aura of a Golden Age. It has been more than two hundred years since the American Philosophical Society proclaimed (in 1778) that â€Å"Nations tru ly civilized (however unhappily at variance on other accounts) will never wage war with the Arts and Sciences and the common Interests of Humanity,†37 but the charm (and the pathos) of such a declaration, and its promise of a Sacred Truce between the nations, affect us still. By the end of the nineteenth century, this ideal was most clearly expressed in what Elisabeth Crawford has called the â€Å"universe of international science. † â€Å"Because science was universal and constituted a common language. she notes, â€Å"international scientific organizations, it was felt, could become models for international associations generally and even help usher in world government. †38 This idealized image of cosmopolitan networking in the service of progress has been the standard against which internationalist projects have been judged for the last century. What is more, this fantasy of a transnational scientific enterprise untainted by national self-interests has create d unrealistic expectations in relation to all of the idealistic internationalisms, prominently including the Olympic movement. If we are interested in establishing the potential of the idealistic internationalisms, then the value of the comparative method lies in establishing realistic parameters of action (and even imagination) over the long term.If we ask, for example, whether the Olympic movement has done what it should have been able to do in fulfillment of its professed aims, what we are really asking is whether it has performed on a par with analogous organizations in comparable historical conditions. While no two of these organizations have had identical resources at their disposal, even the (necessarily 37. Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought (South Bend: The Notre Dame University Press, 1977): 45. 38. Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 254. 14 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism abbreviated) survey present ed in this essay can, I believe, identify that â€Å"core repertory of attitudes and behaviors† that makes comparison worthwhile.Perhaps the most general of these factors is the contest between nationalist and internationalist motives and loyalties (in differing proportions) within the minds of those who led or followed. If Coubertin came to â€Å"the conviction that patriotism and internationalism were not only not incompatible, but required one another,† then this was one (entirely reasonable) response to a problem that could be solved in various ways. 39 In the case of Baden-Powell’s movement, â€Å"the celebration of national greatness,† as Michael Rosenthal points out, â€Å"becomes a problem for the Scouts . . . when the insistence on British national superiority clashes with the equality of all people that is so much a part of Scouting, and more particularly within the movement’s worldwide ambitions that rapidly developed. 40 This potential for intrapsychic conflict affected the Esperantists, as well, even if Zamenhof had personally resolved the internal conflict between the competing identities of â€Å"human being† and â€Å"patriot† in favor of the former. Disagreements among the Esperantists regarding whether they should organize on a national or supranational basis were another manifestation of this basic conflict between national and internationalist affiliations. How the individual member resolved this conflict was a question of political temperament, although it is also true that the range of choices depended to some extent on the movement to which one belonged.The Esperanto movement, for example, tolerated radical, â€Å"citizen-of-the-world†-style supranationalism in a way that the Scouting and Olympic movements did not. A comparative look at their founders can help us understand why. The movements of Lord Robert Baden-Powell (1857-1941) and Pierre de Coubertin are strikingly similar in several respects. Both movements proclaimed early on their universal, apolitical, nonracial and nonmilitary nature: while neither founder was a pacifist—Baden-Powell was an acclaimed professional soldier—both claimed to serve the cause of peace: while they claimed to be classless movements, both were also intended as strategies to deal with domestic social instability and class conflict. Both founders were acclaimed as â€Å"educators† and mobilizers of youth.Both shared the racialistic ideas of their time, although Baden-Powell made openly racist statements in a way that Coubertin did not. 41 Both put a high priority on appearing politically neutral, and both understood the importance of creating a rhetoric and a public image that â€Å"transcended† politics. When recruiting the Comite Jules Simon, as John J. MacAloon points out, â€Å"Coubertin reproduced the now familiar claim that ‘we have recruited adherents of all parties, our work is in effe ct sheltered from all political quarrels. ’ In fact, the ‘shelter,’ such as it was, owed to drawing all of the members from the ‘parties of order’ and 39. MacAloon, This Great Symbol, 112. 40. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 176. 41. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 40-43, 181, 254-267.On Coubertin's racial thinking see Hoberman, â€Å"Olympic Universalism and the Apartheid Issue,† 524-525. 15 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) skewing their ‘neutrality’ toward the right. †42 Baden-Powell pursued the same strategy, and the Esperantists too did their best to establish a nonpartisan profile. 43 (Among the late-nineteenth-century movements, the Red Cross had pioneered the policy of absolute neutrality in the 1860s. ) It is clear, then, that the claim (or pretense) to political neutrality, a policy that would both empower and constrain these movements throughout the twentieth century, was regarded by most non-Socialist internationalists as an absolute requirement for effective action.What distinguished the Scouting and Olympic movements in quite another sense from the Esperantists and the Red Cross was their pursuit of aristocratic affiliations or royal patronage, itself an important ideological signature of movements that were bent on achieving a reconciliation of the social classes. By contrast, Zamenhof saw Esperanto as an instrument of the oppressed, and Flugel later offered an interesting explanation as to why â€Å"the international language movement has enjoyed comparatively little support from the more aristocratic and educated classes. †44 The mononational Red Cross, which until 1923 recruited its membership exclusively from the cream of the Genevan professional bourgeoisie, did not need aristocratic sponsorship. 45 Coubertin, on the other hand, had to create his own establishment.In 1908, European nobility made up 68 percent of the membership of the IOC, a figure whi ch declined to 41 percent by 1924. 46 In Britain, Baden-Powell—a socially prominent hero of the Boer War-had access to a uniquely celebrated caste of royals. â€Å"The Royal family and the English government have shown a great interest in scouting since its inception,† one observer wrote in 1948. â€Å"The King became the Patron of the British Boy Scouts, the Prince of Wales became Chief Scout for Wales and Princess Mary the president of the Girl Guides. † At the first Jamboree held in London in 1920, Prince Gustav Adolph of Sweden was made honorary president of the International Boy 42.MacAloon, This Great Symbol, 105. 43. The official Soviet view of Scouting in the West challenged its claim to political neutrality: â€Å"Scouting seeks to train the younger generation in a spirit of loyalty to the ideals of bourgeois society. Although professing to be unaffiliated with any political party, scout organizations do in fact have clearly expressed political, milita ristic, and religious tendencies they strive to keep the younger generation from participating in the struggle for revolutionary and democratic change and to isolate young people from the influence of materialism and communism. Scouting advocates the idea of class peace in a capitalist state. . .The Komsomol [youth organization] consistently struggled against the scout movement. The second, third, and fourth Komsomol congresses (1918-20) adopted resolutions calling for the dissolution of scout groups and worked out a program for the creation of a new, communist type of children’s organization. † Here, as in other areas of popular culture like sport and the arts, Communists faced the challenge of repackaging attractive â€Å"bourgeois† activities in conformity with Marxist-Leninist ideological requirements. See the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol. 23 (New York: Macmillan, 1979): 253. 44. Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconcious Factors,† 200; see also 175, 176, 201. 5. Jean-Claude Favel, Warum schwieg das Rote Kreuz? Eine internationale Organisation und das Dritte Reich (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994): 25-26. 46. M. Blodorn and W. Nigmann, â€Å"Zur Ehre underes Vaterlandes und zum Ruhme des Sports,† in M. Blodorn, ed. Sport und Olympische Spiele (Rheinbek bei hamburg: Rowohlt, 1984): 42. See also Kruger, â€Å"Neo-Olympismus zwischen Nationalismus und Internationalismus,† 529, 551. 16 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Scout Committee. 47 Appearances notwithstanding, the recruitment of these prestigious sponsors did not point to politically reactionary intentions on the part of the recruiters.In fact, Coubertin used his affiliations with the nobility to advance the cause of sportive internationalism against the resistance of stubborn nationalists. 48 Today, however, the IOC’s interest in recruiting royals appears to be less pragmatic than a response to the prestige-seeking needs of its current President . 2. Olympic Internationalism in the Age of Fascism Olympic internationalism during the Nazi period remains poorly understood, in part because the number of English-language commentaries remains limited. 49 My purpose in this section is to depart from the traditional emphasis on the 1936 Berlin Olympiad, which has been widely misunderstood as an isolated lapse on the part of the IOC, in order to place it in the larger politicalhistorical context where it belongs.We now know that Coubertin saw the â€Å"Nazi Olympics† as the culmination of his life’s work, and it is important to understand why he believed this and why in a sense he was right in doing so. For the Olympic movement during this period is best understood as a rightwing internationalism that was effectively coopted by the Nazis and their French and German sympathizers during the 1930s. This cooptation was made possible in part by an ideological compatibility between the IOC elite and the Nazis based on a shar ed ideal of aristocratic manhood and the value system that derived from their glorification of the physically perfect male as the ideal human being. It is important for us to understand this IOC-Nazi collaboration if only because, contrary to what many have doubtless 47.Saul Scheidlinger, â€Å"A Comparative Study of the Boy Scout Movement in Different National and Social Groups,† American Sociological Review , 13 (1948): 740, 741. 48. Kruger, â€Å"Neo-Olympismus zwischen Nationalismus und Internationalismus,† 549. 49. The traditional approach to the Olympic histoy of this period is to focus on the 1936 Berlin Olympiad as an exceptional event in the history of the movement. See, especially, Richard Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Macmillan, 1971; Arnd Kruger. Die olympischen Spiele 1936 und die Weltmeinung (Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt/M. : Verlag Bartels & Wernitz KG, 1972): Duff Hart-Davis, Hitler's Games: The 1936 Olympics (New York: Harper and Row, 1986).The in dispensable sources for understanding the relationship between the IOC and the Nazis are Hans-Joachim Teichler, â€Å"Coubertin und das Dritte Retch,† Sportwissenschaft, 12 (1982): 18-53; Allen Guttmann, The Games Must Go On: Avery Brundage and the Olympic Movement (New York, Columbia University Press, 1984): and W. J. Murray, â€Å"France, Coubertin and the Nazi Olympics: The Response,† Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies, 1 (1992): 4669. See also John Hoberman, The Olympic Crisis: Sport, Politics, and the Moral Order (New Rochelle, N. Y: Aristide D. Caratzas, Publisher, 1986). More recent publications on the Olympic movement during the interwar period include Stephen R. Wenn, â€Å"A Suitable Policy of Neutrality?FDR and the Question of American Participation in the 1936 Olympics,† International Journal of the History of Sport , 8 (1991): 319-335; Bill Murray, â€Å"Berlin in 1936: Old and New Work on the Nazi Olympics. † Internationa l Journal of the History of Sport, 9 (1992): 29-49: Martin Polley, â€Å"Olympic Diplomacy: The British Government and the Projected 1940 Olympic Games,† lnternational Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 169-187: William J. Baker, â€Å"Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympics of 1932,† International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 397-410; Per Olof Holmang, â€Å"International Sports Organizations 1919-25 Sweden and the German Question. † International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 455-466; and Junko Tahara. â€Å"Count Michimasa Soyeshima and the Cancellation of the XII Olympiad in Tokyo: A Footnote to Olympic History,† lnternational Journal of the History of Sport, 9 (1992) 467-472. On the workers sport movement, see Jonathan F. Wagner, â€Å"Prague’s Socialist Olympics of 1934,† Canadian Journal of the History of Sport, 12 (1992): 1-18. 17 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) assumed , it was not interrupted by the collapse of the Nazi empire in 1945. The postwar denazification of tainted European organizations, limited as it was, did not extend to the IOC, which continued to accommodate its Nazi members and their sympathizers in the old spirit of collegiality.The third section of this essay will examine how this ideological affinity group managed to preserve its traditional viewpoint (and the careers of some important adherents) well into the postwar era, and how its immunity to liberalhumanitarian influence remains a model for the IOC today. At this point, however, some historical background is required. The following narrative can be introduced by a so-called trivia question, to wit: Who was Jules Rimet, the man for whom the World Cup of soccer is named? I found the answer to this question in the April 1933 issue of the Deutsch-Franzosische Rundschau, one of several journals devoted to FrancoGerman cultural exchange and mutual understanding during the period between the world wars.On 18 March of that fateful year, the French national soccer team arrived in Berlin led by Jules Rimet, president of both the French Soccer Association and the international federation (FIFA). Waiting to greet the French delegation were the chairman of the German Soccer Association (DFB), representatives of numerous other sports federations, and the press. In a word, this occasion was a political and media event. The game between the French and German teams, played before 45,000 German spectators under a sparkling spring sky, somehow ended in a tie. Rimet himself observed that the German team had controlled the ball for three-quarters of the game, and the Parisian sports paper L’Auto said the Germans had, in effect, lost a game they should have won.At the traditional banquet after the ga

ART EDUCATION ACROSS CULTURES Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ART EDUCATION ACROSS CULTURES - Research Paper Example At the Fowler Museum, its current location, one may gain appreciation of the eruditely chiseled details in the art of the hornbill’s sculpture which is specifically prominent with its peculiarly and sharply pointed bill having a seemingly elaborate trajectory and body painting under various strokes and pigments depicting how colorful Iban festivals are. Besides its extensive recognition as an object of art of aesthetic and crucial value, hornbill carvings signify the way of life of Iban people and the unique reputation associated with Iban’s utmost festive celebration with religious rituals (Davenport). Hornbill Figure typically is a special embodiment of a bird believed to possess knowledge and wisdom of what is to come. Aside from bringing a prophecy upon which Iban communities heavily relied in the past, it is profoundly considered as a fundamental medium that allowed blending of spiritual dimension with the world of humans so that the latter may possibly convey thei r freedom to interact with spirits and supernatural beings in a variety of concerns.

Strategic management analysis of Starbucks Assignment

Strategic management analysis of Starbucks - Assignment Example This study proposes to evaluate Starbucks from a strategic viewpoint. In this context of the study, the United States segment of the company will be evaluated. It will also shed light on the coffee industry of USA. The primary rationale behind the industry analysis is to measure attractiveness of this industry. The attractiveness of the industry will be gauged by using PORTER’s five forces framework analysis. Apart from that the external business environment will be also analysed using PESTEL analysis. The next portion will be about identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the company. This will be done with the help of a SWOT framework. In addition, the study will also emphasize on the capabilities, core competencies and resources. Starbucks: A Brief Overview The history of Starbucks Corporation dates back to the early 1970s, when the company was founded by the famous Jerry Baldwin, Gordon Bowker and Zev Siegl (Starbucks, n.d.). Since the time of its foundation, the motto of the company has been to offer unique and special experience to the customers whenever they visit a Starbucks store and taste coffee. Starbucks is presently headquartered at Seattle, Washington, U.S (Dess, Lumpkin and Eisner, 2009, p.557). The company operates with around 6705 company owned stores, and 4,082 licensed stores throughout the United Stated. However from a global perspective, the company operates with 20,366 stores and has presence in 61 countries of the world. It sells hot drinks, foods and retail merchandising items. Starbucks has staggering employee strengths of 1, 50,000. As of financial year end 2012, the net revenue of the company was US$ 13.29 billion. Some of the major competitors of the company are Dunkin' Brands Group, Inc., McDonalds, Nestle, Yum Brands, KFC and Wendy's International, Inc (Yahoo Finance, n.d.). TASK A – Market Environment Analysis Micro Environment Analysis Coffee is admired as one of the most precious agricultural commodities and thu s the coffee industry is also witnessing strong growths globally. With strong and established players such as Starbucks and availability of mass customer makes it one of the potential industries of the world. Now to get deeper insights of the micro environment and to measure the attractiveness of the coffee industry of USA an in depth industry analysis will be carried out. To do so PORTER’S five forces framework will be employed. Porter’s five forces is one of the widely used tools to determine the competitive forces of the industry. The five forces of the industry as portrayed by Michael Porter are the threat of the new entrants within the industry, threat of the substitute products, and intensity of the existing rivalry within the industry, bargaining power of the suppliers and finally the bargaining power of the buyers. The analysis is shown below:- Threat of the substitute products The substitute products are the products that are not exactly the same as the core p roduct, but perform almost the similar function or provide the same benefit as given by the core product. In the context of Starbucks, the substitute products are soft drinks, energy drinks, coffee pills and caffeine. The consumption patterns

What it means to you to be a healer and how you envision yourself in Essay

What it means to you to be a healer and how you envision yourself in this role in the future - Essay Example s advocating for patients, educating patients about their health, organizing staff and helping prioritize busy workloads for effective health care delivery, mentoring students and junior/ incoming nurses, maintaining good and accurate patient records and also making ethical decisions concerning consent and confidentiality. As a nurse, I will support recovery from illness and operations by care plans, carrying out care procedures and assessments and by focusing on the needs of the patient rather than fully looking at the illness or condition. Thus, alongside ensuring continuity of healthcare by always being available to patients, providing a source of comfort, warmth and a much needed listening ear during turmoil is also highly essential in ensuring patients heal faster (Crowley, 1961). I also envision myself giving people preventative treatment and meeting patient needs in the comfort of their houses, thus conveniently avoiding the patient’s unnecessary burden of travels to hospitals for appointments and hospital admissions. Apart from writing a patient’s care plans, implementing plans through tasks such as preparation of patients for operations, wound treatment and monitoring pulse, temperature and blood pressure, I also see myself solemnly engrossed in routine and close observation and recording of patient conditions, checking and administering drugs and injection, setting up drips and blood transfusions, assisting with tests and evaluations while also responding with utmost speed to emergencies. As a future nurse, I also, in order to be an effective healer, will be involved in planning discharges from hospitals and liaising with community nurses, GPs and social workers regarding emerging health conditions and patients in need of assistance. I envision myself providing care to patients in the physical, psychosocial, developmental, cultural and spiritual levels while preserving the patient’s dignity. As already mentioned, communication will form an

Steal Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Steal Making - Essay Example This paper explores steel making, fabrication techniques, material science and properties that make steel one of the most useful components in engineering and construction. Steel is the most important metallic material used in engineering and construction. In 2013 alone, the net global steel production was 1,607.2 million metric tons. China, the largest producer, contributed almost 49% of the total global output, the European Union’s total output of 779.0 million metric tons. Overall, the world’s steel production has increased steadily, signaling the rising importance of steel (Yap 20). Steel has been previously used for the production of tools and other implements in many parts of the world before it became the most common material in modern times. Steelmaking has continually evolved from the ancient production in bloomery furnaces to the current efficient mass production (Murr 42). Steel is itself not a singular material, but rather a combination primarily composed of iron and carbon which form an alloy. Other components of steel include manganese, phosphorous, silicon, oxygen and sulfur. Mass production of steel became more efficient starting in the 17th Century with the development of blister and crucible steel (Murr 50). In 1856, the Englishman Henry Bessemer invented a steel smelting technique called the Bessemer process. The entry of the Bessemer process in the 19th Century was perhaps the defining point for mass steel production. Other production techniques such as the Siemens-Martins process and the Gilchrist-Thomas process followed, but they served to refine the steel production process further. Steel is, therefore, popular for construction and many other uses since unlike other forms of iron such as wrought iron; it is harder and possesses tensile strength. The report shall describe the various processes undertaken in the formation of steel (Huaixiang, Zhang and Xingqi n.p).

Tropical rain forest Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tropical rain forest - Research Paper Example Tropical rain forest Tropical rain forests are categorized into three: the monsoon, equatorial rain forests and the subtropical rainforests. They are characterized by very tall trees of different kinds and produce 40% of Earth’s oxygen. The trees form canopies which provide shelter to the plants and animals from the sun. Tropical rain forests host more than half of the estimated 10 million species of plants, animals and insects (Terashima, 49). The vegetation is ever green. The dominant species in the rain forests are plants, animals and insects. Location According to Newman (The Tropical rainforest), tropical rain forests are found on the earth’s surface between the tropic of cancer in the North and the tropical of cancer in the south around 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. Areas around the equator receive a constant amount of sunlight and rainfall which favours the growth of rainforest. Tropical rain forests are mainly found in central and South America, South East Asia and is lands near it and in West Africa. The largest tropical rainforest across the globe is the Amazon rainforest. Climate According to Terashima (52), ecosystem is usually very wet with the total rainfall between 1500 and 2500 mm per year. Most of the rains stays on the rain forest, evaporates, cools to form clouds and fall again. The rainforest soils are infertile since the nutrients are washed away by the rains. There are usually no dry seasons and the day temperatures are around 30-35 Degree Celsius (Terborgh, The midday sun is always near the vertical and is overhead twice a year at the equinoxes. This means there is more direct sunlight hitting the ground and the sea and much water evaporates into the air (Newman, 2002). At night the temperatures range between 20-25 degrees Celsius. Little difference exists between the warmest and coolest months. Tropical rainforests have a high humidity and the type of climate is known as the equatorial climate. Tropical rainforest climate is found at latitudes within five degrees North and South of the equator. The high humidity is due to the warm sunlight, rainfall and the tree canopies which help retain the moisture. Major interactions Among the Organisms that live in the Tropical rain forests Competition According to University of Michigan (The Tropical Rainforest) there is a wide diversity of animals in the tropical rain forests. The tropical birds such as Costa Rica, parrots, macaws and hornbills eat fruits, nuts insects, seeds and nectar. Monkeys such as gorilla and the Lar gibbon feed on leaves, fruits, leaves and bark while the orang-utan and spider monkey feed on leaves fruits, nuts, seeds and insects. Also in Whitemore (195), spiders which live on the canopies eat fruits and leaves hence competing with the birds and some mammal for food in the ecosystem. Both the birds, monkeys and spiders compete for the same food in the ecosystem. Predation The bats also prey on frogs which also prey on insects. Jaguar feeds on r odents and frogs the bats and the jaguar are the predators whereas the frogs and other rodents are the prey. Snakes which are also predators feed on other rodents (Terborgh, 121). Predators use poison, camouflage and strength to kill their prey. Man is another predator whose prey is edible animals and plants. Men use the animals and plant

The TED Assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The TED Assignment - Research Paper Example In this essay I will discuss a few of the videos and how they believe one should lead their lives. The first video I saw was by Amy Purdy who lost her legs due to bacterial meningitis. At that time, she was devastated and wondered how she was going to fulfil her dream of traveling the world and of snowboarding. But then she realized that she had an option to take her life in the direction she wanted to take. So she accepted the fact that she doesn’t have real legs anymore and will have to bear with the artificial ones. She imagined herself to keep walking, helping people and snowboarding again. And this is the life she chose. She became creative about the artificial legs and customized them according to her needs. She failed, slipped, fell many times, but she would not let go of hope that easily. This was when she understood one of the most important life’s lessons: Obstacles do only two things to you-make you stop or force you to be creative. (Purdy, 2011) Her story tells you that one has two options when faced by a real tragedy: you can whine, be depressed, let go of hope and life or look right into the eyes of the world and follow your dreams irrespective of how many obstacles lay in front of you. These obstacles might stop you from doing something the way normally people do, but they also help you to imagine and discover new ways of following your dreams, living life to the fullest and being happy. Another speaker at Ted, Shawn Achor, a researcher and teacher of positive psychology talks about the formula of happiness. He argues that we always talk about what average people think, believe and do. We research on people and we generalize them as average people. He believes that â€Å"if we study what is merely average, we will remain average†. Furthermore he talks about the general perception of life and happiness. He argues that our happiness is mostly characterized by

Macroeconomic Stabilisation in Regards to Labor Market Essay

Macroeconomic Stabilisation in Regards to Labor Market - Essay Example 139 – 140). Aside from believing that there is a perfect labour market among the firms, employers and employees, classical economists assumed that equilibrium within the labour market is possible because of the presence of monetary wages or wage-price flexibility that could make supply and demand curve adjust with the changes in labour markets in order to remove or eliminate the presence of excessive supply and demand for labour (Rossana, 2011, p. 370; Gupta, 2008, p. 273; Ahiakpor, 2003, p. 160). Given that there is profit maximization or profit seeking behaviour on the part of the local business group; demand for labour is often represented by a downward-sloping curve since these companies are less likely to employ a lot of high-paid employees as compared to low-paid employees (Rossana, 2011, p. 370). On the other hand, the aggregate supply curve for labour is represented by a vertical curve (Rossana, 2011, p. 371). Specifically the classical theory on labour market is often based on the Walras’ and Say’s law which strongly suggests the idea that the labour supply is capable of creating its own demand through the use of price or wage adjustments (Gupta, 2008, p. 273). Likewise, the issue on real wage and employment level is determined by the movements in the supply and demand curve within the labour markets. Contrary to the beliefs of Keynesian economists, classical theorists strongly believe the presence of unemployment rate is a result of unforeseen economic disturbance which can be easily solved as soon as an adjustment between the supply and demand curve occurs. Since the presence of job-seekers who refuse to accept lower wage rate are classified as ‘voluntary’ unemployment, classical economists assume that there is always full employment in...This essay offers a comprehensive analysis of macroeconomic concepts that characterize economic conditions in the labour market. This paper makes use of economic principles and theo ries in discussing why aggregate labor market as a clearing market is difficult to achieve. In the study of macroeconomic theories, the interrelation between the labour markets, the goods market, money market, and the foreign trade market is being taken into consideration in order to determine the interaction between the levels of employment, employees’ participation rate, aggregate income, and gross domestic product. In a market clearing situation, the quantity of labour demanded is expected to be equal to the quantity of labour services supplied by the employers. Aside from believing that there is a perfect labour marketclassical economists assumed that equilibrium within the labour market is possible because of the presence of monetary wages or wage-price flexibility that could make supply and demand curve adjust with the changes in labour markets in order to remove or eliminate the presence of excessive supply and demand for labour. The labour market will remain unclear because of imperfect labour market conditions which is often triggered by the presence of economic factors that continuously affect the movements in the supply and demand curve in labour markets. The study of macroeconomics in labour market strongly suggest that full employment is close to impossible to achieve, because of the presence of macroeconomic factors.

Comparison Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Comparison - Essay Example The coldest region of the Northeastern US still did not break records of the previous record low temperatures which the region went through in the winters of 1986. Thus the claim made by the critics of global warming is not rational. (NCDC, Climate of 2004, 2004). On the other hand, the heat waves observed in Europe were record breaking of the highest temperatures ever experienced. A divided hypothesis has been created regarding the effects of global warming and if global warming is a myth or a reality. This assignment would further revolve around this issue and give views as to which side of the scientists comes up with a strong hypothesis regarding global warming. In short, this paper is aimed at answering if the Global Warming Skepticism just smoke and mirrors? DISCUSSION "All across the world, in every kind of environment and region known to man, increasingly dangerous weather patterns and devastating storms are abruptly putting an end to the long-running debate over whether or n ot climate change is real. Not only is it real, it's here, and its effects are giving rise to a frighteningly new global phenomenon: the man-made natural disaster" (Barak Obama). There are two differing views about the existence and causes of Global Warming. One group usually links it to the actions committed by the human beings themselves. However others strongly believe that nature plays a role in creating the problem of global warming (Abrahamson, 1989). The arguments presented by both groups carry importance and without any doubt, these arguments are leading to more and more researches which are beneficial for knowledge and new theories. The study of Earth and its climate is of immense importance and beyond any doubt the reason for such extreme climatic changes should be known. In order to evaluate the reasons behind the changing climate of the Earth, the studies regarding global warming and the arguments against it are helpful. Regardless of all the arguments presented, I belie ve that humans contribute to the climatic changes and extreme weather conditions. The increased CO2 levels and rising temperature do have a link. The link between greenhouse effect and global warming are valid as put down by one set of the researchers. Although the studies and climatic researches are not invalid and the continuous debate over this topic does carry an important place in the Earth’s study. According to my point of view, it is not valid to judge the climatic change just by examining or considering the weather patterns of a small region. Global warming does not talk about a particular region, city or country. It is an overall analysis of the Earth’s temperature. Hence, claims that are based on the study of a single region are invalid and must not be relied upon. The study of NCDC, however, clearly asserts against that claim by ranking the temperature for January 2004 as the 4th warmest on record (NCDC, Climate of 2004, 2004). This further disproves the cla im of the other group. I also agree with the statement that carbon emissions are of the major cause of the problem of Global Warming. The factories which are using the fossil fuels during their manufacturing process are giving out a huge amount of carbon and this contributes greatly in making the climate warmer (CBO, 1990). The trees planted

When I Lost a Friend Essay Example for Free

When I Lost a Friend Essay Jason was the bravest fire-fighter I had ever worked with. He used to say that no matter how rich you are, no matter how strong you are, if you do not risk your life for others, you are not a man. Once, we were supposed to attend day-shift but our boss called Jason and myself and told us to work the night-shift instead. As we went in at seven o’clock in the evening, we made a cup of coffee and started checking the fire trucks. At around ten o’clock, the siren rang and we were informed that our assistance was required as there was a burning house. Six trucks, including two ladder trucks, emerged from the garages and we sped up the highway of North Carolina as fast as we could. As we arrived, a young man came rushing at us, panic-stricken, with tears in his eyes, telling us that his girlfriend was trapped in the flames.   Quickly Jason with the courage of a lion, fetched his breathing apparatus and an axe an in he went in the hungry flames of the devastating fire. We followed him in and as we were going up the stairs, he ordered us to go out again because everything was brittle and the structure of the house could no longer support four people. We went out again while he kept advancing in the towering flames. We kept radio contact with him and when he heard the crying and shouting of twenty-year old Christa, he quickly told us that he had found the girl. Half an hour later, Jason emerged from a door with the girl walking beside him and when the girl ran to her boyfriend he fell to the ground. We rushed to see what had happened but he was dead.   One of my friends, Jack, looked at the lung monitor. (This is a digital watch which measures the concentration of carbon dioxide against that of oxygen in the lungs). The ratio was scary. He had eighty-five percent carbon dioxide and fifteen per-cent oxygen in his lungs. This was the worst day of my life. Jason, my right hand man passed away while on duty saving a person’s life. As a show of respect we stuck a large sticker with his saying on his truck: â€Å"No matter how rich you are, no matter how strong you are, if you do not risk your life for others, you are not a man†.

Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols on Human Health

Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols on Human Health Abstract: A highly Sensitive (LOD; 0.04-0.4 ng/ml) method is developed for detection and quantification of acidic compounds (C3 -C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids on GC-MS. These compounds (C3 -C10) existed in trace amount, as secondary organic aerosols i.e. important constituents of Aerosols. Membrane extraction technique was utilized for selective enrichment (1-4300 times) of target compounds. Good repeatability (RSD% ≠¤ 10%) from selective organic phase (10% TOPO in DHE) was achieved with three phase HF-LPME. Aerosols containing samples, after Ultrasonic Assisted extraction were detected and quantified Through GC-MS. Effective derivatization of each target compound was performed with BSTFA reagent. Gas Chromatography, having capillary column and interfaced with mass spectrometry was used for separation, detection and quantification of target compounds. Method Development and Application -hollow fiber Supported liquid membrane extraction of Fatty acids (C3-C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids and Detection of aerosols Samples after ultrasonic assisted extraction. 1. Introduction: Impact of Atmospheric aerosols on human health and effect on radioactive stability in Earth’s atmosphere is getting importance now a days and this phenomenon has been well understood. [1]. Atmospheric aerosols can harm respiratory and cardiovascular system of human. Impact of Secondary organic aerosols as biogenic and anthropogenic antecedent is identified (Adams and sinfold, 2002) [1, 17]. Low molecular dicarboxylic acids (C3-C9) are also vital tracers of SOA [2]. Short chain fatty acids are found as secondary organic aerosols which are also supposed to derive from long chain fatty acids [1]. Importance of organic aerosol has been well established now a days and carboxylic acids are of great interest for environmental studies [1]. Several studies and mechanisms were proposed to understand the production of these SOA precursors [1]. Short chain carboxylic acids are found extensively in troposphere [2]. Secondary organic aerosols (SOA) are formed in the atmosphere by gas particles conversions. Organic matter present in aerosol contains more than 90% of troposphere’s aerosols [5, 15]. Dicarboxylic acids found in nature as polymeric compounds such as suberin and cutin [3]. Short chain dicarboxylic acids are found in vegetables [Siddiqui, 1989] and in soil containing micro organisms of durum wheat [4]. Dicarboxylic acids are found in plant oils which have greater interest for cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries [6]. Short chain dicarboxylic acids having aliphatic chain possess strong cyclotoxicity and antineoplastic activities [18]. Many analytical techniques are used to determine the composition of SOA so keeping in view these techniques new method for determination of fatty acids (common in SOA) has been developed. Membrane extraction is used in this method due to its increasing importance for high selectivity and high enrichment factor [24]. Dicarboxylic acids formed of bio oxidation of fatty acids so these are considered as metabolic part of fatty acid [42]. Dicarboxylic acids and their derivatives can be used to make polymers and their condensation with diols in solution produces high molecular weight polyester [39]. Additionally these dicarboxylic acids use less temperature in the reaction for the preparation of polyesters [39]. 1.1. Analytes Description: Properties (physical, chemical, etc.) of Compounds (C3-C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids are discussed in section; 1.1.1-1.1.12. These compounds (C3-C10) are the target analytes in this diploma project. These target analytes are extracted through Liquid phase micro extraction and detected by GC-MS system. Fig. 1.1-1.12 represents structures of target analytes (section; 1.1.1-1.1.12). 1.1.1- Adipic Acid Adipic acid is a product of lipid per oxidation. Adipic acid does not undergo hydrolysis in the environment perhaps due to the lack of hydrolysable functional groups (Harris 1990) [5]. 1.1.2- Malonic Acid: Malonic Acid is a metabolite of plants and tissues and Malonyle-CoA [28]. Malonic Acid is an intermediate for preparation of fatty acids from plants and other tissues [7]. Malonic acid is also present in aerosols [8]. Malonic acid is an important constituent of short chain fatty acids [8]. Malonic acid present in beet rots as a Calcium salt [42]. 1.1.3- Succinic Acid: Succinic acid is found in atmosphere as water soluble compound and as a compound of Secondary organic aerosols [29]. Succinic acid is a solid exists as crystals, anciently called spirit of amber. Succinic acid is an important intermediate in citric acid cycle which is very important constituent of living organism [42]. 1.1.4- Glutaric acid: Glutaric acid is found as SOA in aerosols [8]. Glutaric acid is sparingly soluble in water [41], can be used to prepare a plasticizer for polyester [41]. 1.1.5- Pimelic Acid: Pimelic acid is a last dicarboxylic acid relative to carbon number which has IUPAC name. Derivatives of Pimelic acid are used for biosynthesis of amino acid typically lysine [41]. Pimelic acid is produced, when Nitric acid is heated with Oleic acid as a secondary sublimation product which is not crystallized [20]. 1.1.6-Suberic Acid: Suberic acid is produced from suberine [8]. Suberic acid can also be obtained by vigorous reaction condition of natural oil with nitric acid [8]. 1.1.7-Azelaic Acid: Azelaic acid is an important constituent of secondary organic aerosols because it produces short chain fatty acids upon photo oxidation and also because it can be produced during oxidation of unsaturated acid that is found in Oleic acid [11]. 1.1.8- Cis-pinonic Acid: Cis-pinonic acid is also produced in atmosphere by photo oxidation of ÃŽ ±-pinene in the existence of Ozone [30]. 1.1.9- Pinic Acid: Pinic acid is derivative of ÃŽ ±-pinene. Pinic acid can be generated by photo oxidation of ÃŽ ±-pinene with Ozone as given in this chemical reaction; (C10H16 + 5/3 O3 -> C9H14O4 + HCHO). Pinic acid is present in a crystalline form used to prepare plasticizers [30]. 1.1.10- 4-Hydroxybenzoic Acid 4-Hydroxy benzoic acid is exists as crystals. It is used to derive parabens and can be used as antioxidant [41]. 1.1.11-Phthalic Acid: Phthalic acid is an aromatic dicarboxylic acid it is found as white crystalline state in pure form [41]. Phthalic acid is found abundantly in atmosphere and it has toxic properties. Aromatic acids are generally emitted through anthropogenic sources like reminiscent of solvent evaporation and Automobile exhaust [31]. 1.1.12-Syringic Acid. Syringic acid is found as humic substance in environment [40]. 1.2. Detection of Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction samples(UAE): A detection procedure by GC-MS is established with reference standard injections and UAE samples. A theoretical description is given in section 1.2 for â€Å"Ultrasonic assisted extractions†. Unknown real Samples from Aerosols containing mono and dicarboxylic acids (C 3-C 10) are provided after Ultrasonic assisted extraction [34]. 1.2.1- Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction: ‘Ultrasonic’ is derived from ultrasound. Ultrasound refers to a sound that has a higher frequency than a normal human can hear. This technique is used in chemistry in several aspects and due to application in chemistry it is known as Sonochemistry [23]. Ultra Sound is used in sample preparation in analytical chemistry like extraction, filtration, dissolution and sample purification. When Ultrasonic technique is used for assistance in extraction, this assistance in extraction is called â€Å"Ultrasonic assisted extraction† (UAE) [23]. There are many advantages by using UAE because it require less organic solvents ,non destructive, less expensive and less time consuming comparative to other sample preparation techniques like soxhlet [21]. The normal range of ultrasound frequencies used in laboratory ranges from 20 KHz to 40 KHz. Use of UAE is simple. A sample solution inside a vessel in an appropriate solvent can be placed inside ultrasonic bath at desired temperature and sound waves stir the sample [20]. The mechanism of US is as â€Å"when a sound source produces a high frequency waves, sample molecules starts vibrating and shift this vibration to other molecules of sample in a longitudinal direction when gas and liquid is used as a sample, while in solid sample both longitudinal and transverse waves can be produced† [19]. When UAE is utilized it increases speed of mass transport by vibration of mechanical transport from the sample matrix through a process called â€Å"cavitation† [21]. 1.2.2- Theory of Ultrasonic Assisted extraction: There are two theoretical aspects of sonication i.e. physical and chemical aspects in sample preparation. Physical and chemical aspects are described in section (1.2.2.1-1.2.2.2), in order to understand its practical use in analytical chemistry. 1.2.2.1- Physical aspects of UAE: During Ultrasonic assisted extraction, a bubble in a liquid cannot take energy (due to US) and implodes. On the other hand due to Ultra sound in liquid extractions, the cavitational pressure is shifted relatively higher so formation of bubble is difficult [21]. Ultrasonic intensity produces cavitations in a liquid sample during extraction (UAE). Two types of US cavitation is produced known as â€Å"transient cavitation† (produce transient bubble) and â€Å"permanent cavitation† [21]. The life time of transient bubble is so short that no mass transport or diffusion of gas is possible with in a sample [21]. Transient bubble is believed to be produced at US intensity (10 W/cm2) and permanent bubble at intensity (1-3 Watt/cm2). Sonochemical effects are intense inside the bubble because energy (numerous amounts) is produced during bubble eruption and production [21]. 1.2.1.2 Chemical aspects of UAE: When US radiation strikes a water molecule it produces free radicals OH* and H* due to collapsing cavitations’ bubble which exhibits high temperature and pressure inside and also many other radicals can be produced in solution [21]. Radical OH* is believed to be more stable and can begin many new reactions while H* radical is not stable. Second Sonochemical effect is pyrolytic reactions that occur inside bubble and can degrade compounds under analysis [21, 23]. 1.3. Liquid Phase microExtraction(lpme): The application of membrane extractions in analytical chemistry has taken the intentions of analysts during recent time. The goal of utilizing membrane extraction is to achieve high enrichment, selective extraction and environmental friendly procedure [24]. Small quantity of solvent (usually in micro liters) is required comparative to old techniques of extractions (soxlet) [24]. Clean extracts are obtained and after extraction, recovered compounds are shifted to another analytical instrument like Gas chromatography or liquid chromatography directly for further quantitative analysis [24]. 1.3.1 Hollow fiber membrane extraction: Two types of membrane are used in LPME. One membrane is flat sheet porous and second membrane is polypropylene hollow fiber. In this project polypropylene hollow fiber is used as a membrane support in membrane extractions due to limited cost and to reduce carry over problems [24]. 1.3.1.1 HF-LPME Technique: When a hollow fiber is used in LPME, this technique (LPME) is called hollow fiber liquid phase micro extraction (HF- LPME). In HF- LPME technique, a hollow fiber is used containing a thin film of immobilized liquid membrane inside the pores while the fiber is dipped into an aqueous phase containing objective analytes. Target analytes can transport through the membrane into a liquid filled inside the lumen of the fiber, which is termed as accepter solution [22]. Extraction of target analytes (C3-C10) was carried through three phase HF- LPME during whole of the project. Donor solution was contained analytes in aqueous medium, a suitable organic solvent i.e. Dihexyl ether (TOPO mixture) was used in pores of hollow fiber as a stationary liquid membrane support (SLM). Accepter solution was in aqueous medium [22].Target analytes were recovered into accepter phase after evaporation of water. Acetonitrile solvent was added in dried GC vial along with derivatizing reagent. After derivatization these samples were injected into a Gas chromatographic system. 1.3.2 Basic Principle of LPME: Basic principle is same for all LPME techniques (two phase or three phase LPME), the variation is only from accepter region [24]. In three phase liquid phase micro extraction technique (HF- LPME) a donor aqueous solution is filled in a vial or flask containing sample analytes. A short piece of hollow fiber is used and accepter solution is injected inside fiber through a micro syringe after injecting accepter solution one end is closed and other end contains syringe needle. Fiber containing solutions is inserted in an appropriate organic solvent having less polarity (Dihexyl ether) to create a stationary liquid membrane (SLM). Donor solution pH is adjusted such that it can restrain the ionization of target analytes [22]. The process of three phase extraction [22] can be explained as follows in Eq 1.1. Where ‘A’ is a target analyte, ‘K1’, ‘K2’, ‘K3’ and ‘K4’ are first order extraction rate constants. In order to obtain combined distribution coefficient, at equilibrium recovery, Eq. 1.2 is derived [22]. D accepter/sample = C eq accepter / C eq sample = C Org sample/ C eq accepter =ÃŽ ± D .Korg/sample / ÃŽ ± a. Korg/accepter†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.1.2 In Eq. 1.2, C eq accepter, C eq sample and C Org sample are the concentration of analytes at equilibrium, in accepter phase, in aqueous sample phase and in organic membrane phase respectively.Here Korg/sample, Korg/accepter are the partition ratio’s between Organic phase and sample phase and between accepter phase and organic phase respectively [22]. ÃŽ ± D and ÃŽ ± a are the extractable fraction of total concentration of target analyte in sample and accepter respectively. If conditions are similar between sample and accepter, other than ionization of analytes in sample phase, from Eq. 1.2, equilibrium is independent from partition ratio of stationary liquid membrane in three phase lpme i.e. it depends mainly on ionization of analytes in sample [22]. Extraction efficiency (E) can be calculated from Eq. 1.3[22]. V sample, V accepter and V mem , in Eq. 1.3, are the volume of donor sample phase, aqueous accepter phase and organic immobilized membrane liquid phase respectively. D accepter/sample and D Org/sample are individual distribution coefficients relative to accepter phase to sample phase and Organic phase (SLM) to sample phase respectively [22]. Eq. 1.3 is derived for three phase lpme. It is evident; from the interpretation of Eq. 1.3 that efficiency is mainly controlled by individual distribution coefficients. Individual distribution ratios are directly dependent on partition coefficients, so by increasing the partition ratios efficiency can be improved [22]. Partition coefficients can be improved by properly adjusting the pH of donor and accepter and by using an appropriate organic solvent. Volume of sample and organic phase should also be kept minimum, according to Eq. 1.3 in order to develop efficiency [22]. 1.3.3-Mass transfer in LPME: Enrichment factor (Ee) for three phase LPME is given in Eq. 1.4. Ee = C accepter/C initial = V sample. E / V accepter †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.4 In Eq. 1.4, C accepter is the concentration of target analyte, present in final stage inside accepter solution [22]. When an acidic analyte is ionized in aqueous solution, total extractable fraction of analyte (ÃŽ ±) is given in Eq. 1.5 [24]. ÃŽ ± = [AH]/ [A-][AH] = 1/[1+10(pH-pKa)] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.5 In the context of Eq. 1.3, the overall distribution constant (D) at equilibrium can be rearranged as given in Eq. 1.5 [24]. D = 1+10 s (pH-pKa) . KD /1 + 10 s (pH-pKa). KA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.6 ‘s’ is equal to 1 for acidic analytes (Eq. 1.6). ‘pKa’ is dissociation constant and pH refers to donor or accepter solution(Eq. 1.6) [24]. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C = ÃŽ ±D .Cs ÃŽ ±a CA.KA/KS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.7 Eq. 1.5-1.7 are derived from Henderson-Hasselbalch relation, in this equation ÃŽ ± represents the extractable fraction of analytes [24]. The driving force for the extraction in neutral conditions of three phase LPME is the concentration gradient (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C) from sample to accepter [12]. The concentration gradient between two phases, between donor and accepter, is described in Eq. 1.7. K represent partition ratio of uncharged analyte between the membrane and aqueous phase. CA and Cs are the concentrations of analytes in accepter and sample phase respectively. 1.3.4 End point for extraction: Three end points are normally considered for extraction [22]. 1. Exhaustive extraction. 2. Kinetic extraction. 3. Equilibrium extraction. 1.3.4.1 Exhaustive extraction: Exhaustive end point is the specific end point (time), when all amount of analytes are exhausted (which can be practically possible) present in donor [22]. In this practical diploma work, Exhaustive end point will be applied in (LPME) extractions. Enrichment factor will increase by growing analyte concentration in accepter by the passage of time, at certain point it reaches a stable value [12]. Mass transfer between organic phase and liquid phase is dependent on concentration gradient [12]. Enrichment factor can be improved by increasing the value of ÃŽ ±D preferably close to unity and decreasing the value of ÃŽ ±A to zero. Such conditions for the ÃŽ ±D and ÃŽ ±A values are called â€Å"infinite sink† conditions, normally required for exhaustive extractions [22]. Situation close to these values can be achieved for acids by selective tuning the pKa values. For example for acidic compound if pH of accepter is adjusted, 3.3 (pH) units above than the pKa of acidic analytes this Di fference set the value of ÃŽ ±A to 0.0005, at this point accepter can capture all analytes. At this set value (ÃŽ ±A), enrichment factor increases linearly with time [12]. Peak time of enrichment factor, when other parameters are constant, can be calculated by comparison of CA maximum. CA maximum (‘CA’ is considered as time dependent) can be obtained by careful calculation of CA maximum values at a certain time, before this value starts to decrease again [12]. 1.3.5 Rate of LPME: Two parameters, govern the rate of extraction (when extraction approaches to equilibrium conditions), are membrane controlled extractions or diffusion controlled extractions [13, 24]. The maximum concentration Ee can be obtained when concentration gradient (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C) is approaches to zero described in Eq. 1.8 [13, 24]. Ee (max) = (C a / C d) max = ÃŽ ±D/ÃŽ ±A †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.8 In membrane controlled extractions, the rate limiting step is the diffusion of target analytes. When analytes pass through the organic phase, the mass transfer (Km) is given in Eq. 1. 9 [13, 16]. Km  µ K.D m /h m †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.9 In Eq. 1.9; K is partition coefficient, Dm is membrane diffusion coefficient and ‘h m ‘ is the thickness of membrane [13, 16]. 1.3.6 Addition of Trioctylphosphine oxide(TOPO): Mass transfer can be improved for acidic analytes by using different concentrations (w/v) of TOPO in organic solvent typically for short chain carboxylic acids. Interaction of TOPO with polar acids in solution takes place efficiently due to hydrogen bonding [16]. 1.3.7 Trapping of Analyte in Three phase lpme[24]: Concentration enrichment of analytes in three phase LPME can be achieved by stable mass transfer through the membrane to accepter phase. Back diffusion of analytes is prevented by trapping of analytes in accepter phase. In order to achieve high enrichment of acidic analytes pH of accepter phase is fixed enough basic so that when acidic analytes reached to the accepter solution becomes charged. Analytes could not be driven back to donor. So this trapping of analytes due to pH adjustment is called ‘’direct trapping’’. For high enrichment purpose, pH of accepter is usually adjusted 3.3 pH units higher than the pKa values of acidic target analytes while extracting from acidic donor. Buffer capacity of accepter should be sufficient such that during extraction protons from acidic donor cannot be neutralized by the concentration gradient between two aqueous phases during three phase lpme [24]. 1.3.8 Selection for Organic phase: Choice of organic solvent has basic importance in method validation because this solvent directly affect partition coefficient. Organic phase solvent should have low solubility in water [22] and low volatility to prevent solvent losses during extraction process [16]. Organic phase should have high distribution coefficient, between donor to organic phase and between organic to accepter phase, to achieve high enrichment. Organic phase should have adequate affinity to the hollow fiber. Organic phase should be immobilized sufficiently to cause efficient trapping of analytes in the pores through polarity matching [22]. Mixture of organic solvents can also be used as mobile phase [16]. In this project organic solvent is either pure DHE or DHE is also mixed with different amount of TOPO (section; 1.3.6) to achieve high stability of organic phase [22, 24]. 1.3.9 Agitation of sample: Extraction kinetics can be improved by agitation. Agitation increases analyte diffusion from donor to accepter. Organic membrane solution (DHE) is very stable inside pores of the membrane. Shaking by a magnetic stirrer helps analyte transfer from donor solution to the accepter solution [17]. When Donor solution containing analytes is stirred at high speed, probability of fresh solution contact with membrane phase is enhanced [9]. In order to enhance mass transfer all membrane extractions in this project are assisted through agitation by a magnetic stirrer. A membrane extraction assembly is shown in Fig. 1.13. 1.3.10Volume of donor and acceptor solutions. Volume of donor and accepter solution is very important because sensitivity can be improved by proper volume adjustment of accepter solution. Volume of accepter solution should be minimum comparative to donor to get better sensitivity [17]. Volume of accepter solution should be enough to be injected, detected and quantified by GC or HPLC. Volume of the accepter solution should be enough to fill lumen of hollow fiber appropriately [17]. 1.3.11 Adjustment of pH. Proper adjustment of pH of donor and accepter is very important because high partition ratio can be obtained in three phase lpme by proper adjustment of donor and accepter solution [17]. According to Eq. 1.7, Efficiency can be improved by increasing concentration gradient which depends mainly on pH. In this project three phase lpme is utilized on acidic analytes (C3-C9) containing carboxylic and hydroxyl groups so in donor solution pH is adjusted slightly lower than the pKa values of analytes to suppress ionization of these analytes [17]. 1.4. Detection and quantification of Analytes: 1.4.1-GC-MS analysis: GC-MS is a powerful detection technique for environmental trace analysis due to its high sensitivity [14]. Aerosols are existed in trace level so their detection requires a sensitive device with low limit of detection. GC-MS suffers less matrix effect and is usually cost effective and highly selective [14]. Analytes are separated according to their charge to mass (m/e) ratio after passing through mass spectrometer. Scan mode is used for identification of each analyte [14]. When gaseous analytes come to mass spectrometer they are converted to their respective molecular ions. Electron ionization in mass spectrometer strikes molecules to fragments [18]. These molecular ions are specific for each analyte and sensitivity and selectivity can be improved through selected ion chromatogram (SIM) [14]. Signal to noise ratio (SNR) is improved through extracted ion chromatogram (XIC) which is selected through SIM mode [14]. SIM mode is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis [14]. Analytes (C3-C10) are polar and non volatile, so these analytes cannot be detected in pure form and separated by using Gas chromatographic column. A derivatization step is necessary to convert Analyte into volatile substances. Derivatization is made to convert carboxylic and hydroxyl functional groups to their respective ester functional group [14]. 1.5. Derivatization: Two derivatization reagents; ‘’N, O-bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide’’ (BSTFA) and ‘’N-(tertbutyldimethylsilyl)-N-methyltrifluoroacetamide’’ (MSTFA) are commonly used for esterification of hydroxyl and carboxylic functional groups before injecting to GC-MS system[14]. Both derivatizing reagents are applied separately and compared prior to GC-MS analysis. 1.5.1- Silylation: Analytes containing carboxylic acids (C3-C10) are introduced to GC-MS after derivatization. Carboxylic acids are converted to their respective trimethyl silyl ester (TMS derivative) by BSTFA. A nucleuphilic attack is taken place by a hetero atom to silicon atom when BSTFA reagent is used as a derivatization reagent [14]. BSTFA is found very efficient to convert hydroxyl groups to respective Silyl ester [18]. Advantage with BSTFA is that its derivative can be injected directly without purification and it can be used for very sensitive detection [18]. BSTFA is non polar and its efficiency can be improved by using BSTFA in Acetonitrile [32]. Chemical structure of BSTFA is shown in Fig [1.14] below. Due to the use of BSTFA reagent in the reaction, a common peak is appeared at m/z= 73, due to [Si(CH3)3]+ molecular ion and at m/z=145 due to [OH=Si(CH3)2]+ molecular ion . when Analytes containing dicarboxylic acids are used for MS analysis, Ion peak is appeared at m/z=147. Ion peak at m/z=147 is appeared due to the [(CH3)2Si=Si(CH3)2]+ molecular ion [18]. 2. Method: 2.1 Membrane extraction: Three phase HF- LPME method is used for extraction. Section 2.1 describes the method for three phase hollow fiber liquid phase micro extraction technique. 2.1.1 Equipment and reagents for Membrane Extraction: Hollow fiber Accurel PP polypropylene (Q3/2) is purchased from Membrana (Wuppertal, Germany). The wall thickness of membrane is 200  µm, Inner diameter 600  µm and pore size is 0.2  µm. Before extraction a 7.5 cm membrane was cut carefully with a fine cutter. After cutting membrane was washed in acetone and dried overnight. A magnetic stirrer, containing multiple stations, model (Ika-werke, Germany) was used for agitation of donor solution. Micro Syringe 50  µl (Agilent, Australia) was used to push accepter solution inside the lumen of membrane and for holding of membrane. pH meter (Mettler Toledo) was used to measure pH for donor and accepter solution. Volumetric flask (Kebo, Germany) was used for extractions (contain donor solution). Milli-Q water was obtained from Millipore gradient system (Millipore, USA). Hydrochloric acid (37%, Fluka) and Sodium hydroxide monohydrate (Fluka) were used to prepare further solutions. Dihexyl ether (97%) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich. TOPO (99%; Aldrich) was used to prepare solutions in DHE (%, w/v). 2.1.2Set up for Membrane Extraction: 2.1.2.1 Donor solution: The pH donor solution was adjusted to 2. All aqueous solutions were prepared in mill Q water and pH was adjusted by adding HCl (0.1M). All Samples were spiked in a dried 100 ml volumetric flask (Germany). This flask was then, filled up to mark with donor solution. Further 5 ml of donor solution was added in same flask in order to dip membrane inside donor solution. Total volume of donor solution was adjusted to 105 ml. A clean magnet was dropped in flask and then, this spiked solution inside the flask was allowed to stir for 30 minutes and at a fixed revolutions/min (800 rpm) of magnetic stirrer. 2.1.2.2 Accepter solution: Accepter solution was prepared in milli Q water and pH 12 was adjusted by Sodium hydroxide (0.5 M, 5 M). The accepter solution was injected inside lumen of dried membrane through a micro syringe. Specific amount of (24  µl) accepter solution was injected inside lumen of hollow fiber via a BD micro syringe. Specific volume (24  µl) of accepter solution was fixed after several adjustments, for best compatibility with a 7.5 cm hollow fiber, to achieve good repeatability and enrichment. 2.1.2.3 Membrane solvent: Membrane containing accepter solution was dipped for 15 s (Approximately) into the organic solvent (pure DHE or topo% solutions in DHE), to impregnate the fiber with organic solvent and to establish a membrane phase. The solvents, immobilized in the pores of hollow fiber were; pure DHE, 1% topo in DHE (w/v), 5% topo in DHE (w/v), 10% topo in DHE (w/v), 15% topo in DHE (w/v) and 19% topo in DHE (w/v). All solutions (topo in DHE) were prepared and mixed by manual shaking, although 15% topo in DHE and 19% topo in DHE solutions were prepared by vigorous shaking and were put inside sonicator for efficient mixing. 2.2. Sample preparations: All primary solutions were prepared in methanol. Primary solutions were prepared by transferring specific weight of analytes to a sample vial, having air tight caps. This solution was diluted with methanol to prepare a solution of concentration (100 ÃŽ ¼g/ml). Table 2.1 represents properties (physical, chemical) of analytes. A (abbreviation) name was given respective to TMS ester of each analyte, new name consists of three words only. Molecular weight (Mw), Molecular (Molec) formula, Source (chemicals were purchased from), pKa values of individual analytes (dissociates in water) and purity (as labeled on each chemical) of each analyte is listed in Table 2.1. Table. 2.1- Analytes source (purchased from)and purity. Sr. No Chemical name Abbreviation Mw Molec formula Purchased from pka. Values Purity (%) 1 Malonic Acid Mal 104.06 C3H4O4 Aldrich 2.83, 5.69 (36) 99 2 Succinic Acid Suc 118.09 C5H6O4 Fluka 4.19, 5.48 (36) 99.9 3 Glutaric Acid Glu 132.04 C5H8O4 Aldrich 4.34, 5.42 (36) 99 4 Adipic Acid Ad 146.14 C6H10O4 Fluka 4.34,5.44 (36) 99.5 5 Pimelic Acid Pim 160.17 C7H12O4 Aldrich 4.48, 5.42 (36) 98 6 Suberic Acid